inherently sluggish ORR and OER, mainly due to

the slow kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER), which are the key processes in fuel cells and electrolyzers. The sluggish reaction kinetics result in low efficiency and high energy consumption. Several factors contribute to the sluggishness, including the high activation energy, limited active sites, and poor oxygen adsorption/desorption properties on the electrode surface. Researchers are actively exploring various strategies to enhance the ORR and OER kinetics, such as developing novel catalyst materials, optimizing the electrode structure, and introducing surface modifications. These efforts aim to improve the performance and commercial viability of related technologies.